AccScience Publishing / HPR / Online First / DOI: 10.36922/HPR026310186
Submit to HPR
Cite this article
1
Download
35
Views
Supplementary Material
article_hpr026310186_supplement_44fc68.zip
Related Info Links
Google Scholar
More by Authors Links
Jasmin Sandmann
Journal Browser
Volume | Year
Issue
Search
News and Announcements
View All
RESEARCH ARTICLE

The differential role of physical activity intensity and intrinsic motivation on children’s well-being

Jasmin Sandmann1* ,  Markus Gerber2 ,  Sebastian Ludyga2 ,  Wenke Möhring1
Show Less
1 Department of Educational Psychology and Health Psychology, Institute of Human Sciences, University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Baden-Württemberg , Germany
2 Department of Sport, Exercise, and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Basel, Basel, Basel-Stadt , Switzerland
HPR, 026310186 https://doi.org/10.36922/HPR026310186
Received: 29 July 2026 | Revised: 29 September 2026 | Accepted: 8 October 2026 | Published online: 26 October 2026
© 2026 by the Author(s). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution -Noncommercial 4.0 International License (CC-by the license) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
Download PDF
XML
Cite
Abstract

Background: Negative life events are associated with lower well-being in children, and this association may vary with physical activity and motivational quality.

Objectives: This study examined gender differences in negative life events, physical activity, motivation, and well-being and tested whether moderate and vigorous physical activity moderated the association between negative life events and well-being. It further explored whether intrinsic motivation extended this moderating relationship.

Methods: This cross-sectional study included 752 children aged 8–14 years (335 boys, 417 girls; mean = 10.36 years) and their parents. Parents reported negative life events and physical activity; children reported well-being and intrinsic motivation. Moderation analyses were conducted separately by gender, alongside formal tests of gender differences.

Results: Parents rated negative life events more severe for girls. Girls also reported lower vigorous physical activity, intrinsic motivation, and well-being. Greater event severity was associated with lower well-being in boys and girls. Formal gender differences in moderations were significant for vigorous but not for moderate physical activity. Follow-up gender-stratified analyses showed that, among girls, higher moderate activity was associated with a weaker negative association between event severity and well-being, whereas higher vigorous activity was associated with a stronger negative association. No interactions were observed among boys. The three-way interactions involving intrinsic motivation were non-significant.

Conclusion: A statistically significant difference in moderations was observed for vigorous but not for moderate physical activity. Thus, gender-stratified findings for moderate activity should be considered exploratory. Given the cross-sectional design and subjective assessment of physical activity intensity, findings should be interpreted as associative.

Keywords
Physical activity
Negative life events
Well-being
Intrinsic motivation
Gender
Moderation
Funding
The article processing charge was funded by the University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd in the funding program Open Access Publishing.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
References
  1. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York, NY: Springer; 1984.
  2. Paus T, Keshavan M, Giedd JN. Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence? Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(12):947-957. doi: 10.1038/nrn2513
  3. Beauchamp MR, Puterman E, Lubans DR. Physical inactivity and mental health in late adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(6):543-544. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0385
  4. Nelson SC, Kling J, Wängqvist M, Frisén A, Syed M. Identity and the body: trajectories of body esteem from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Dev Psychol. 2018;54(6):1159-1171. doi: 10.1037/dev0000435
  5. Lohaus A, Domsch H, Fridrici M. Stressbewältigung für Kinder und Jugendliche [Stress Management for Children and Adolescents]. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2007. [In German]. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-73943-2
  6. Kobasa SC, Maddi SR, Puccetti MC. Personality and exercise as buffers in the stress-illness relationship. J Behav Med. 1982;5(4):391-404. doi: 10.1007/BF00845369
  7. Caspersen CJ, Powell KE, Christenson GM. Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. 1985;100(2):126-131.
  8. Fuchs R, Schlicht W, eds. Seelische Gesundheit und sportliche Aktivität [Mental Health and Physical Activity]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe; 2012. [In German]
  9. Armandpour I, Dehghanizadeh J, Fernandez-Rio J. The effect of cooperative learning-based physical activity on quality of life in male students: a quasi-experimental study from Iran. Int J Sport Stud Health. 2026;9(4):1-13. doi: 10.61838/kman.intjssh.5078
  10. Birgersson A, Landberg J, Låftman SB. School pressure and psychosomatic complaints among Swedish adolescents: does physical activity play a buffering role? Front Public Health. 2024;12:1392999. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1392999
  11. Gerber M, Pühse U. Do exercise and fitness protect against stress-induced health complaints? A review of the literature. Scand J Public Health. 2009;37(8):801-819. doi: 10.1177/1403494809350522
  12. Sigfusdottir ID, Asgeirsdottir BB, Sigurdsson JF, Gudjonsson GH. Physical activity buffers the effects of family conflict on depressed mood: a study on adolescent girls and boys. J Adolesc. 2011;34(5):895-902. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.01.003
  13. Wright LJ, Veldhuijzen Van Zanten JJCS, Williams SE. Examining the associations between physical activity, self-esteem, perceived stress, and internalizing symptoms among older adolescents. J Adolesc. 2023;95(6):1274-1287. doi: 10.1002/jad.12201
  14. Sothmann MS, Buckworth J, Claytor RP, Cox RH, White-Welkley JE, Dishman RK. Exercise training and the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;24:267-287. doi: 10.1249/00003677-199600240-00011
  15. Sothmann MS. The cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis and exercise training. In: Acevedo EO, Ekkekakis P, eds. Psychobiology of Physical Activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2006:149-160.
  16. Basso JC, Suzuki WA. The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: a review. Brain Plast. 2016;2(2):127-152. doi: 10.3233/BPL-160040
  17. Chang YK, Labban JD, Gapin JI, Etnier JL. The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Res. 2012;1453:87-101. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068
  18. Ekkekakis P. Pleasure and displeasure from the body: perspectives from exercise. Cogn Emot. 2003;17(2):213-239. doi: 10.1080/02699930302292
  19. Ekkekakis P, Parfitt G, Petruzzello SJ. The pleasure and displeasure people feel when they exercise at different intensities: decennial update and progress towards a tripartite rationale for exercise intensity prescription. Sports Med. 2011;41(8):641-671. doi: 10.2165/11590680-000000000-00000
  20. Parfitt G, Hughes S. The exercise intensity–affect relationship: evidence and implications for exercise behavior. J Exerc Sci Fit. 2009;7(2):S34-S41. doi: 10.1016/S1728-869X(09)60021-6
  21. Brenner JS; Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in child and adolescent athletes. Pediatrics. 2007;119(6):1242-1245. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-0887
  22. Brenner JS, Watson A, Brooks MA, et al. Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in young athletes. Pediatrics. 2024;153(2). doi: 10.1542/peds.2023-065129
  23. Lohaus A, Beyer A, Klein-Heßling J. Stresserleben und Stresssymptomatik bei Kindern und Jugendlichen [Stress experiences and stress symptoms in children and adolescents]. Z Entwicklungspsychol Pädagog Psychol. 2004;36(1):38-46. [In German]. doi: 10.1026/0049-8637.36.1.38
  24. Ivanović M, Ivanović U. Gender differences during adolescence in the motives for physical exercise, depression, anxiety and stress. Exerc Qual Life. 2018;10(1):17-27. doi: 10.31382/eqol.180602
  25. Pauline JS. Physical activity behaviors, motivation, and self-efficacy among college students. Coll Stud J. 2013;47(1):64-74.
  26. Robbins LB, Ling J, Wen F. Moderators in a physical activity intervention for adolescent girls. Pediatr Res. 2020;88(5):810-817. doi: 10.1038/s41390-020-0818-5
  27. Kelleher KJ, McInerny TK, Gardner WP, Childs GE, Wasserman RC. Increasing identification of psychosocial problems: 1979-1996. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6):1313-1321. doi: 10.1542/peds.105.6.1313
  28. Pihlakoski L, Sourander A, Aromaa M, Rautava P, Helenius H, Sillanpää M. The continuity of psychopathology from early childhood to preadolescence: a prospective cohort study of 3-12-year-old children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;15(7):409-417. doi: 10.1007/s00787-006-0548-1
  29. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2008. Accessed October 23, 2026. https://odphp.health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/paguide.pdf
  30. World Health Organization. Physical activity. Accessed July 19, 2026. https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/physical-activity
  31. Eime RM, Harvey JT, Sawyer NA, Craike MJ, Symons CM, Payne WR. Changes in sport and physical activity participation for adolescent females: a longitudinal study. BMC Public Health. 2016;16(1):533. doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-3203-x
  32. Husøy A, Kolle E, Steene-Johannessen J, et al. Longitudinal changes in device-measured physical activity from childhood to young adulthood: the PANCS follow-up study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2024;21(1):29. doi: 10.1186/s12966-024-01578-7
  33. Telford RM, Telford RD, Olive LS, Cochrane T, Davey R. Why are girls less physically active than boys? Findings from the LOOK longitudinal study. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0150041. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150041
  34. Young DR, Cohen D, Koebnick C, et al. Longitudinal associations of physical activity among females from adolescence to young adulthood. J Adolesc Health. 2018;63(4):466-473. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.05.023
  35. Buckworth J, Lee RE, Regan G, Schneider LK, DiClemente CC. Decomposing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise: application to stages of motivational readiness. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2007;8(4):441-461. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.06.007
  36. Mitchell TR. Motivation: new directions for theory, research, and practice. Acad Manage Rev. 1982;7(1):80-88. doi: 10.2307/257251
  37. Owen KB, Astell-Burt T, Lonsdale C. The relationship between self-determined motivation and physical activity in adolescent boys. J Adolesc Health. 2013;53(3):420-422. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.05.007
  38. Portela-Pino I, López-Castedo A, Martínez-Patiño MJ, Valverde-Esteve T, Domínguez-Alonso J. Gender differences in motivation and barriers for the practice of physical exercise in adolescence. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;17(1):168. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17010168
  39. Sebire SJ, Kesten JM, Edwards MJ, et al. Using self-determination theory to promote adolescent girls' physical activity: exploring the theoretical fidelity of the Bristol Girls Dance Project. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2016;24:100-110. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.01.009
  40. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York, NY: Springer US; 1985. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
  41. Sternberg RJ, Pickren WE, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of the Intellectual History of Psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2019. doi: 10.1017/9781108290876
  42. Arashi M, Webster CA, Mîndrila D, et al. Associations between intrinsic motivation, exercise attitudes, physical activity, and mental health in young adolescents: an integrated motivational perspective. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2025;96(3):513-522. doi: 10.1080/02701367.2024.2446545
  43. Ng JYY, Ntoumanis N, Thøgersen-Ntoumani C, et al. Self-determination theory applied to health contexts: a meta-analysis. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2012;7(4):325-340. doi: 10.1177/1745691612447309
  44. Owen KB, Smith J, Lubans DR, Ng JYY, Lonsdale C. Self-determined motivation and physical activity in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Med. 2014;67:270-279. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.07.033
  45. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2017.
  46. Schüler J, Wegner M, Plessner H, eds. Sportpsychologie: Grundlagen und Anwendung [Sport Psychology: Foundations and Applications]. Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2020. [In German]. doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-56802-6
  47. Diener E, Suh EM, Lucas RE, Smith HL. Subjective well-being: three decades of progress. Psychol Bull. 1999;125(2):276-302. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276
  48. Gilman R, Huebner S. A review of life satisfaction research with children and adolescents. Sch Psychol Q. 2003;18(2):192-205. doi: 10.1521/scpq.18.2.192.21858
  49. Schraml K, Perski A, Grossi G, Simonsson-Sarnecki M. Stress symptoms among adolescents: the role of subjective psychosocial conditions, lifestyle, and self-esteem. J Adolesc. 2011;34(5):987-996. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.010
  50. Gardner B, Lally P. Does intrinsic motivation strengthen physical activity habit? Modeling relationships between self-determination, past behaviour, and habit strength. J Behav Med. 2013;36(5):488-497. doi: 10.1007/s10865-012-9442-0
  51. Teixeira PJ, Carraça EV, Markland D, Silva MN, Ryan RM. Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012;9(1):78. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-78
  52. Meyer S, Grob A, Gerber M. No fun, no gain: the stress-buffering effect of physical activity on life satisfaction depends on adolescents' intrinsic motivation. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2021;56:102004. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102004
  53. Isoard-Gautheur S, Ginoux C, Gerber M, Sarrazin P. The stress–burnout relationship: examining the moderating effect of physical activity and intrinsic motivation for off-job physical activity. Workplace Health Saf. 2019;67(7):350-360. doi: 10.1177/2165079919829497
  54. Gerber M, Endes K, Brand S, et al. In 6- to 8-year-old children, cardiorespiratory fitness moderates the relationship between severity of life events and health-related quality of life. Qual Life Res. 2017;26(3):695-706. doi: 10.1007/s11136-016-1472-6
  55. Matud MP, Díaz A, Bethencourt JM, Ibáñez I. Stress and psychological distress in emerging adulthood: a gender analysis. J Clin Med. 2020;9(9):2859. doi: 10.3390/jcm9092859
  56. Biddle SJH, Asare M. Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: a review of reviews. Br J Sports Med. 2011;45(11):886-895. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2011-090185
  57. Rudolph KD. Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. J Adolesc Health. 2002;30(4):3-13. doi: 10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00383-4
  58. Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang AG, Buchner A. G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav Res Methods. 2007;39(2):175-191. doi: 10.3758/BF03193146
  59. Johnson JH. Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. In: Lahey BB, Kazdin AE, eds. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology. New York, NY: Springer US; 1982:219-253. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4613-9811-0_6
  60. Sarason IG, Johnson JH, Siegel JM. Assessing the impact of life changes: development of the Life Experiences Survey. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1978;46(5):932-946. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.932
  61. Grant KE, Compas BE, Thurm AE, McMahon SD, Gipson PY. Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: measurement issues and prospective effects. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2004;33(2):412-425. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_23
  62. Brand AH, Johnson JH. Note on reliability of the Life Events Checklist. Psychol Rep. 1982;50(3 suppl):1274. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1982.50.3c.1274
  63. Sallis JF, Haskell WL, Wood PD, et al. Physical activity assessment methodology in the Five-City Project. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;121(1):91-106. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113987
  64. Lampert T, Mensink GBM, Romahn N, Woll A. Körperlich-sportliche Aktivität von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Ergebnisse des Kinder- und Jugendgesundheitssurveys (KiGGS) [Physical activity among children and adolescents in Germany: results of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS)]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 2007;50(5-6):634-642. [In German]. doi: 10.1007/s00103-007-0224-8
  65. Ravens-Sieberer U, Bullinger M. Assessing health-related quality of life in chronically ill children with the German KINDL: first psychometric and content analytical results. Qual Life Res. 1998;7(5):399-407. doi: 10.1023/A:1008853819715
  66. Ravens-Sieberer U, Ellert U, Erhart M. Gesundheitsbezogene Lebensqualität von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Eine Normstichprobe für Deutschland aus dem Kinder- und Jugendgesundheitssurvey (KiGGS) [Health-related quality of life among children and adolescents in Germany: a representative sample from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS)]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 2007;50(5-6):810-818. [In German]. doi: 10.1007/s00103-007-0244-4
  67. Seelig H, Fuchs R. Messung der sport- und bewegungsbezogenen Selbstkonkordanz [Measurement of self-concordance in sport and physical activity]. Z Sportpsychol. 2006;13(4):121-139. [In German]. doi: 10.1026/1612-5010.13.4.121
  68. Hayes AF. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2022.
  69. Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(5):963-975. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200005000-00014
  70. Grüning Parache L, Vogel M, Meigen C, Kiess W, Poulain T. Family structure, socioeconomic status, and mental health in childhood. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2024;33(7):2377-2386. doi: 10.1007/s00787-023-02329-y
  71. Fox J. Applied Regression Analysis and Generalized Linear Models. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications; 2016.
  72. Thoits PA. Stress and health: major findings and policy implications. J Health Soc Behav. 2010;51(1 suppl):41-53. doi: 10.1177/0022146510383499
  73. Cosma A, Abdrakhmanova S, Taut D, Schrijvers K, Catunda C, Schnohr C. A Focus on Adolescent Mental Health and Well-Being in Europe, Central Asia and Canada: Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children International Report From the 2021/2022 Survey. Volume 1. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2023. Accessed October 23, 2026. https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289060356
  74. Eschenbeck H, Schmid S, Schröder I, Wasserfall N, Kohlmann CW. Development of coping strategies from childhood to adolescence: cross-sectional and longitudinal trends. Eur J Health Psychol. 2018;25(1):18-30. doi: 10.1027/2512-8442/a000005
  75. Baumeister RF, Vohs KD. Self-regulation, ego depletion, and motivation. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2007;1(1):115-128. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00001.x
  76. Baumeister RF, Vohs KD, Tice DM. The strength model of self-control. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2007;16(6):351-355. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x
  77. Inzlicht M, Schmeichel BJ. What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2012;7(5):450-463. doi: 10.1177/1745691612454134
  78. Babic MJ, Morgan PJ, Plotnikoff RC, Lonsdale C, White RL, Lubans DR. Physical activity and physical self-concept in youth: systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2014;44(11):1589-1601. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0229-z
  79. Slater A, Tiggemann M. Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self-objectification and body image concerns. J Adolesc. 2011;34(3):455-463. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.06.007
  80. Hu C, Yang J, Gou W. Adolescent depressive symptoms, physical activity, and core self-evaluation in Chinese adolescents: evidence from mediation and latent profile approaches. Health Psychol Res. 2026;14(1):e81240054. doi: 10.14440/hpr.0336
  81. Huang W, Chen B, Hu C. The latent profile structure of negative emotion in female college students and its impact on eating behavior: the mediating role of physical exercise. Front Public Health. 2025;13:1663474. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1663474
  82. Standage M, Duda JL, Ntoumanis N. A test of self-determination theory in school physical education. Br J Educ Psychol. 2005;75(3):411-433. doi: 10.1348/000709904X22359
Next article in this issue
Share
Back to top
Health Psychology Research, Electronic ISSN: 2420-8124 Published by AccScience Publishing
We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.
Read more about our cookies here
Accept